Protective factors for adverse childhood experiences: Scoping review and evidence gap map.

OBJECTIVE: Adverse childhood experiences (ACES) negatively impact mental, physical, and behavioral health of adults. To develop empirically supported interventions to reduce the impact of ACES, we need to have a strong empirical base of research on modifiable protective factors that reduce the link between ACES and health outcomes. The current review is focused on assessing the state of the literature on modifiable protective factors on the ACE-health outcome relationship in adults. METHOD: We conducted a scoping review in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews. A systematic search for peer-reviewed literature published in English was conducted in Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science from inception of the databases to January 5, 2023. We then constructed an evidence gap map to provide an innovative, visual approach to guide research prioritization. RESULTS: Seventy-seven articles met inclusion criteria. Findings indicated that the majority focused on mental health outcomes (59%), and investigated individual (52%) and general social support (23%) protective factors. Also, the majority of the work was done in North America (65%) with predominantly female samples. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies should focus on addressing gaps in our understanding of what factors may buffer the influence of ACES on physical health outcomes and risky health behaviors and our understanding of family and nonfamily relationships and community and cultural protective factors on the ACE-health outcome relationship in adults. Additionally, research is needed that focuses on samples that are more gender diverse and from countries outside of North America. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A longitudinal test of Mexican-origin teen mothers' cultural characteristics and children's Spanish vocabulary via mothers' Spanish language use.

OBJECTIVES: The present study examined whether teen mothers' adaptive cultural characteristics (i.e., familism values, language competency pressures, and involvement in Mexican culture and U.S. mainstream culture) when children were 3 years old (i.e., Wave 4; W4) informed mothers' Spanish language use with their children when children were 4 years old (W5) and, in turn, children's subsequent Spanish receptive vocabulary when children were 5 years old (W6). METHOD: The present study included 204 Mexican-origin children (58% male) and their mothers who entered parenthood during adolescence (M = 16.24, SD = .99 at W1). RESULTS: Five mediational processes were significant, such that mothers' higher familism values (i.e., emphasizing family support and obligations), Spanish competency pressure (i.e., stress associated with Spanish language competency), and involvement in U.S. mainstream culture at W4 were associated with mothers' lower Spanish language use with children at W5 and, in turn, children's lower levels of Spanish receptive vocabulary at W6. Mothers' greater involvement in Mexican culture and English competency pressure (i.e., stress associated with English language competency) at W4 were associated with mothers' greater Spanish language use with children at W5 and, in turn, children's greater Spanish receptive vocabulary at W6. Additionally, mothers' greater involvement in U.S. mainstream culture at W4 was directly associated with children's lower Spanish language abilities at W6. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of the family context in Mexican-origin children's Spanish language skills over time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Interactions between COVID-19 family home disruptions and relationships predicting college students' mental health over time.

The present study tested whether family home disruptions during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Spring 2020 (Time 1; T1) informed mental health (i.e., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depressive, and anxiety symptoms) 7 months later in Fall 2020 at T2 and whether family relationship quality moderated relations. Multigroup path analysis models were used to test whether there were significant differences in relations by emerging adults' ethnic-racial backgrounds. Participants were 811 Black, Asian American, Latine, and White emerging adult college students (Mage = 19.95, SD = .33), and the majority (79.6%) who reported their gender identified as cisgender women. Results indicated that across all individuals, T1 family relationship quality moderated relations between T1 family home disruptions and T2 anxiety and depressive symptoms. At lower levels of T1 family relationship quality, family home disruptions predicted greater T2 depressive and anxiety symptoms. At higher levels of T1 family relationship quality, these relations were not significant. Findings highlight that family relationship quality is an important protective factor for diverse emerging adult college students. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Public safety redefined: Mitigating trauma by centering the community in community mental health.

The summer of 2020 marked a shift in public perception of police brutality and racism in the United States. Following the police murder of George Floyd and ensuing social unrest, the appropriate role and function of the police in communities have been a frequent topic of debate. Of particular concern is the intersection of policing and mental health where we see a pattern of police using excessive force disproportionately against persons with disabilities, especially mental health disabilities (Autistic Self Advocacy Network, 2017). The introduction of race only exacerbates this disparity (Saleh et al., 2018). Given the realities of these mental health inequities, the aim of this scoping review is to explore first response models/programs that emphasize a therapeutic intervention as an alternative to policing. Seventeen articles were selected for inclusion in the review, six exploratory or experimental studies and 11 review or discussion articles. Using findings from the review, we offer recommendations to help reimagine this country's approach to emergency response. We urge psychologists and other health care providers to step out of the clinic and engage the community in the development of crisis responses for mental health emergencies that are therapeutic rather than inflammatory, healing rather than harming. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Processes underlying Mexican adolescents' sexual behaviors and intentions: Examining the roles of familial cultural values and parental monitoring.

OBJECTIVES: The study examined the associations between familial cultural values of familismo (familism) and respeto (respect), parental monitoring, and Mexican adolescents' sexual behaviors. METHOD: The sample consisted of 1,024 Mexican adolescents (12-18 years) from two urban schools in Puebla, Mexico. RESULTS: Findings indicated that respeto was associated with paternal and maternal monitoring, sexual responsibility, sexual intention, and sexual behavior. Further, through indirect effects, among males, respeto was associated with paternal monitoring, which was, in turn, associated with sexual intentions. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the relevance of caregivers and cultural values in Mexican adolescents' sexual health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial discrimination and depressive symptoms mediated by conversations about race among students of color.

Racial discrimination is associated with adverse mental health outcomes among Students of Color. In order to address racial tensions, it is important to consider students' dialogues about race. The current study tested whether having positive and negative conversations about one's ethnic-racial group mediated the relation between racial discrimination at T1 and depressive symptoms 5 months later at T2 among 94 college Students of Color. Findings indicated that greater racial discrimination at T1 was associated with more frequent negative conversations about race at T2 (b = .38, p = .00), which was, in turn, associated with greater depressive symptoms at T2 (b = 2.73, p = .04); this pathway demonstrated significant mediation. However, positive conversations about race was not a significant mediator in this association. The current study highlights the importance of focusing on racial conversations after racial discrimination in order to minimize adverse effects on mental health among Students of Color.

Sex differences in how ethnic-racial identity informs first coital affect and virginity beliefs among Black college students.

Objective: The present study examined whether ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation informed individuals' beliefs about virginity (ie, virginity as a gift, stigma, process) and first coital affective reactions (FCAR; ie, positive and negative), and whether these relations varied by biological sex. Participants and method: The sample consisted of 184 Black college students (Mage = 19.79, SD = 2.08) enrolled in a large Southern university. Participants completed a virginity beliefs measure, first coital affective reaction measure, and an ethnic-racial identity measure. Results: Findings indicated that for Black females, greater ERI exploration was associated with decreased virginity as a gift beliefs; and ERI resolution was associated with increased virginity as a gift beliefs. Additionally, for Black males and females, ERI affirmation resulted in more positive FCAR, less negative FCAR, and less views of virginity as a stigma. Conclusion: Finding implications are presented in the context of future research.

COVID-19-Induced Inequalities and Mental Health: Testing the Moderating Roles of Self-rated Health and Race/Ethnicity.

This study examines the relationship among COVID-19-induced social, economic, and educational inequalities on mental health (i.e., anxiety and depression). This study also examines if levels of self-rated health (SRH) moderate the relationship (i.e., COVID-induced inequalities [CII] and mental health), as well as examines the racial/ethnic group differences among 567 young adults in the mid-Atlantic region. Using a moderation model, results indicate that CII were significantly related to depression (b = .221, t(554) = 4.59, p = .000) and anxiety (b = .140, t(555) = 3.23, p = .001). SRH and race/ethnicity also moderated both relationships. At above-average SRH (i.e., moderator), higher CII were also significantly related to lower anxiety (Asian young adults only) and lower depression (Asian and White young adults only). Overall, SRH and race/ethnicity are important factors in the mental health impact of COVID-19 on young adults.

Cultural Socialization and Ethnic-Racial Identity Mediated by Positive and Negative Conversations about Race: Exploring Differences among Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White Students.

The current study examined associations between cultural socialization and ethnic-racial identity via positive and negative conversations about one's ethnicity/race. Ethnic-racial differences between Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White students were explored. College students 18-22 (M age = 18.46) participating in a university-wide study provided self-reports of childhood cultural socialization, engagement in conversations about ethnicity/race during college, and ethnic-racial identity. Cultural socialization was associated with more positive conversations about race, and, in turn, greater ethnic-racial identity exploration, resolution, and affirmation among all students. Additionally, among Multiracial and African American students, cultural socialization was associated with greater negative conversations about race and, in turn, less ethnic-racial identity affirmation. Although cultural socialization was not associated with negative conversations about race for Asian American, Latinx, or White students, the relation between greater negative conversations about race and less ethnic-racial identity affirmation was significant. Negative conversations about race also informed greater ethnic-racial identity exploration among all students, but was not associated with ethnic-racial identity resolution. The current study highlights the nuanced ways that childhood cultural socialization and conversations about one's ethnicity/race influence college students' ethnic-racial identity, both similarly and differently among Asian American, African American, Latinx, Multiracial, and White students. Two items created for the current study were used to assess positive and negative conversations about one's ethnicity/race in the past month. Response options for the positive conversation item ("In the past month, I had conversations with someone about something positive about my ethnic-racial group.") and negative conversation item ("In the past month, I had conversations with someone about something negative about my ethnic-racial group.") were scored using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (1) Not at all to (5) Extremely or almost always. Higher scores indicated more frequent positive conversations and more frequent negative conversations, respectively. Initial support for the validity of the two items for positive and negative conversations about race has been provided by research with emerging adults (Delaney et al., in press).

Moderating Influence of Social Support on the Relations between Discrimination and Health via Depression in Latinx Immigrants.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relations among discrimination, depression, and health among a sample of diverse Latinx immigrants. A secondary aim was to examine whether direct and indirect effects among these variables were moderated by social support. A sample of 204 Latinx immigrants completed questionnaires in community centers, health clinics, and retail establishments. Depression was found to mediate the effect of discrimination on physical health. Social support was found to moderate this indirect effect, wherein higher levels of social support weakened the effect. Results from this study indicate that through depression, health can be impacted by minority stressors, and these relationships can be buffered by links to cultural strengths including social support.

El propósito de este estudio fue examinar las relaciones entre la discriminación, la depresión y la salud entre una muestra de diversos inmigrantes Latinxs. Un segundo objetivo fue examinar si los efectos directos e indirectos entre estas variables fueron moderados por el apoyo social. Una muestra de 204 inmigrantes Latinxs completaron cuestionarios en centros comunitarios, clínicas de salud y establecimientos minoristas. Se descubrió que la depresión media la relación entre la discriminación y la salud física. Se encontró que el apoyo social moderó esta relación indirecta y que los niveles más altos de apoyo social la debilitaron. Los resultados de este estudio indican que, a través de la depresión, la salud puede verse afectada por factores estresantes de las minorías, y estas relaciones se pueden amortiguar a través de fortalezas culturales, incluyendo el apoyo social.

Racial Discrimination and Alcohol Problems: Examining Interactions with Genetic Risk and Impulsivity among African American Young Adults.

Experiences of racial discrimination have been shown to increase risk for alcohol problems. Some individuals may be particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of racial discrimination. However, little research has examined interaction effects between racial discrimination and individual characteristics, such as genetic predispositions and personality, in relation to alcohol outcomes. This study examined whether genetic risk and dimensions of impulsivity moderate the association between racial discrimination and alcohol problems among African American young adults (n = 383, Mage = 20.65, SD = 2.28; 81% female). Participants completed online surveys and provided a saliva sample for genotyping. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that both blatant and subtle forms of racial discrimination (i.e., experience of racist events and racial microaggressions) were associated with more alcohol problems. Racial microaggressions interacted with dimensions of impulsivity in relation to alcohol problems, such that racial microaggressions were associated with more alcohol problems when negative urgency was high or when sensation seeking was low. There was no significant interaction between alcohol use disorder genome-wide polygenic score and experience of racist events or racial microaggression in relation to alcohol problems, which may partly reflect low power due in part to limited representation of African-Americans in genetic research. The findings highlight the need to increase the representation of African Americans in genetically-informed research in order to better characterize genetic risk and understand gene-environment interaction in this understudied population, as well as the importance of examining impulsivity as a multidimensional construct that interacts with racial discrimination in relation to alcohol outcomes.

African American Children's Racial Discrimination Experiences and Mental Health.

The current study examined how African American children's experiences of perceived personal racial discrimination and perceived vicarious racial discrimination were linked with depressive and anxiety symptoms, and whether there were significant sex differences in these relations. The sample included 73 African American children (48% male), ranging from 7 to 12 years of age (M = 8.82, SD = 2.06). Models specified children's personal discrimination and vicarious discrimination as predictors of depressive and anxiety symptoms. Nested model comparisons were also used to examine whether associations varied as a function of children's sex. The current study hypothesized that both forms of discrimination would be associated with greater anxiety and depressive symptoms. Findings indicated that children's personal racial discrimination significantly predicted greater child anxiety symptoms for both boys and girls. No significant sex differences emerged. Neither personal nor vicarious discrimination significantly predicted depressive symptoms. Our findings highlight that racialized experiences occur early in childhood and have important implications for children's mental health.

Mexican-origin 5-year-old children's ethnic-racial identity centrality and attitudes predicting social functioning.

OBJECTIVE: Early childhood is an important developmental period to focus on the outcomes associated with ethnic-racial identity (ERI) given that children notice racial differences, are processing information about ethnicity and race, and have race-related experiences. The present study tested whether three components of ERI (i.e., positive attitudes, negative attitudes, and centrality) predicted children's social functioning (i.e., interactive, disruptive, and disconnected play with peers; externalizing behaviors; and observed frustration and cooperation with an adult). Child sex was also tested as a moderator. METHOD: The present study included 182 5-year-old Mexican-origin children (57% male) of mothers who entered parenthood during adolescence (M = 21.95, SD = 1.00). RESULTS: Children's positive ethnic-racial attitudes were associated with greater social functioning (i.e., greater interactive play and less externalizing behaviors) among boys and girls, and less frustration among boys. Negative ethnic-racial attitudes predicted maladaptive social functioning (i.e., greater disruptive play) among boys and girls and more disconnected play among girls. Contrary to expectations, ethnic-racial centrality predicted boys' and girls' maladaptive social functioning (i.e., greater disruptive and disconnected play). CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of fostering children's positive ethnic-racial attitudes and helping them discuss and cope with negative ethnic-racial attitudes to promote more adaptive social functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Associations Between Sexual Victimization and Health Outcomes Among LGBQA College Students: Examining the Moderating Role of Social Support.

Prior studies have demonstrated that sexual minority college students are two to four times more likely to experience sexual victimization (e.g., sexual assault and/or unwanted or uncomfortable sexual experiences) compared to their heterosexual counterparts. However, research that has focused on the detrimental effects of sexual victimization on health outcomes has paid more attention to heterosexual college samples and community-based adults. Understanding how sexual victimization influences mental health and substance use outcomes among lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and asexual (LGBQA) emerging adults in college is warranted given that this developmental period represents a critical risk period for trauma exposure, risk behavior, and psychological distress. Thus, the current study tested how sexual victimization was associated with depressive symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms among 234 diverse college students who self-identified as LGBQA. Additionally, social support was tested as a moderator. Findings indicated that sexual victimization was related to greater depressive symptoms, PTSD symptoms, and AUD symptoms. In addition, perceived social support moderated the relation between sexual victimization and depressive symptoms, however, in a direction contrary to hypotheses. In particular, higher sexual victimization was associated with greater depressive symptoms among LGBQA students with higher levels of social support (b = .29, p = .00), and was not significant among LGBQA students with lower levels of social support (b = .13, p = .26). The current study highlights the need to consider the detrimental effects of sexual victimization on health outcomes among LGBQA college students, as well as the mechanisms through which social support may be influencing these relations.

Measuring 5-year-old Mexican-heritage Children's Ethnic-Racial Identity Attitudes, Centrality, and Knowledge.

Young children are aware of ethnicity-race, yet the field lacks measures to assess ethnic-racial identity (ERI) in early childhood. Thus, the goals of the current study were: (a) to describe three adapted measures that can be used to assess aspects of Mexican-heritage children's ERI (i.e., attitudes, centrality, and knowledge), and (b) to test the psychometric properties of each measure among 182 five-year-old Mexican-heritage children. Results from confirmatory factor analyses supported a 2-factor solution characterizing positive and negative ERI attitudes; the subscales demonstrated adequate reliability and findings provided preliminary support for construct validity. Findings for ERI centrality revealed significant variability among children and initial support for convergent and divergent validity. Support for ERI knowledge was more limited and suggests further development of this measure is needed. Overall, the current study calls attention to the importance of assessing ERI in early childhood, and provides developmentally appropriate assessments to stimulate growth in this area.

The associations between African American emerging adults' racial discrimination and civic engagement via emotion regulation.

OBJECTIVE: The current study tested direct and indirect associations between racial discrimination and civic engagement via emotion regulation strategies. Differences between males and females were also explored. METHOD: African American college students (76% female; Mage = 18.42) participating in a university-wide research study provided self-reports of their racial discrimination experiences, use of emotion regulation strategies, and civic engagement attitudes and beliefs. RESULTS: Greater racial discrimination was associated with less use of reappraisal (i.e., thinking about emotions in a different way) and, in turn, use of reappraisal was associated with greater civic engagement attitudes. The same association was found for civic engagement behaviors. However, reappraisal was associated with greater civic engagement behaviors for females and less civic engagement behaviors for males. CONCLUSION: The current study highlights the need to consider the role of cognitive emotion regulation strategies on college students' sociopolitical development and civic engagement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploration of bidirectionality in African American and Latinx adolescents' offline and online ethnic-racial discrimination.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of the present study was to examine longitudinal relations between adolescents' reports of offline (i.e., in-person) ethnic-racial discrimination and adolescents' reports of online ethnic-racial discrimination. METHOD: The study was conducted among a sample of 570 African American and Latinx adolescents (58% female; 10-18 years) over three waves of assessments occurring at yearly intervals. Autoregressive cross-lagged analyses examined potential bidirectional relations of offline ethnic-racial discrimination and online ethnic-racial discrimination. RESULTS: Results indicated that adolescents' more frequent experiences of offline ethnic-racial discrimination predicted more frequent experiences of online ethnic-racial discrimination across time, but that the opposite direction was not supported. CONCLUSIONS: Findings may be used to redefine current theoretical frameworks that assert the bidirectional nature of online and offline experiences, particularly in the domain of ethnic-racial discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Moderating influence of enculturation on the relations between minority stressors and physical health via anxiety in Latinx immigrants.

OBJECTIVES: The Latinx population in the United States has grown rapidly, now standing at over 56 million people. Discrimination and acculturative stress have been found to affect the mental and physical health of Latinx immigrants, yet enculturation has been identified as an important cultural strength for this population. The purpose of this study was to examine the relations among minority stressors, anxiety, and physical health in a sample of Latinx immigrants living in the United States. A secondary aim was to examine whether the direct and indirect effects among these variables were moderated by enculturation (i.e., moderated mediation). METHOD: A community sample of 202 Latinx immigrants completed questionnaires measuring these constructs. RESULTS: Both acculturative stress (b = -1.68, p < .001) and discrimination (b = -1.69, p < .001) yielded direct effects on physical health, as well as indirect effects (b = -.10, 95% confidence interval [-.23, -.01]; b = -.21, 95% confidence interval [-.40, -.08], respectively) through anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Psychologists and allied health care providers are recommended to assess for the impact of minority stressors on anxiety and physical health when providing care to Latinx immigrants. Future intervention research targeting Latinx mental and physical health can consider ways to include innate cultural strengths like enculturation and partner with Latinx cultural centers, churches, and local communities to make enculturation more salient. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

PERSISTENT CONCERNS: QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH ON ETHNIC-RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT.

Research on ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and its development has increased exponentially over the past decade. In this paper we discuss five questions that the Lifespan ERI Study Group grappled with in our effort propose a lifespan model of ERI: (1) When does ERI development begin and end? (2) How do we account for age-dependent and contextually-initiated factors in ERI? (3) Should there be a reference point for healthy ERI, and if so, what is it? (4) How do the multiplicities of identity (intersectionality, multiracialism, whiteness) figure into our conceptualization of ERI? (5) How do we understand the role of ERI in pursuit of equity, diversity, and social justice? We note that these are persistent questions in ERI research, and thus our goal is to present our collective reckoning with these issues as well as our ponderings about why they persist. We conclude with recommendations forthe kinds of research questions, designs, and methods that developmental science, in particular, needs to pursue.

A Lifespan Model of Ethnic-Racial Identity.

The current paper presents a lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) from infancy into adulthood. We conceptualize that ethnic-racial priming during infancy prompts nascent awareness of ethnicity/race that becomes differentiated across childhood and through adulthood. We propose that the components of ERI that have been tested to date fall within five dimensions across the lifespan: ethnic-racial awareness, affiliation, attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge. Further, ERI evolves in a bidirectional process informed by an interplay of influencers (i.e., contextual, individual, and developmental factors, as well as meaning-making and identity-relevant experiences). It is our goal that the lifespan model of ERI will provide important future direction to theory, research, and interventions.